Ageism Information (Age Discrimination, Youth) @ UglyTeenagers.com

CERD The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination is a United Nations convention. A second-generation human rights instrument, the Convention commits its members to the elimination of racial discrimination and the promotion of understanding among all races. Controversially, the Convention also requires its · CEDAW The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women is an international convention adopted in 1979 by the United Nations General Assembly. Described as an international bill of rights for women, it came into force on 3 September 1981. The United States is the only developed nation that has not ratified the CEDAW. Several · CDE Convention against Discrimination in Education is a convention adopted by UNESCO in 1960 aiming to combat segregation and discrimination in the field of education. It has entered into force in 1962. There is an additional Protocol Instituting a Conciliation and Good offices Commission, adopted in 1962 and entering force in 1968. As of March, 2010, · ILO C111 Discrimination Convention, 1958 is an International Labour Organization Convention · ILO C100 Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 is an International Labour Organization Convention · ILO C169 Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 is an International Labour Organization Convention, also known as ILO-convention 169, or C169. It is the major binding international convention concerning indigenous peoples, and a forerunner of the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples · Protocol No. 12 ECHR Protocol No. 12 to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms is an anti-discrimination treaty of the Council of Europe. It was adopted on November 4, 2000, in Rome and entered into force on April 1, 2005, after tenth ratification. As of February, 2010, it has 17 member states and 20 signatories (from 47 CoE member

Other forms

Adultcentrism CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR · Androcentrism Androcentrism is the practice, conscious or otherwise, of placing male human beings or the masculine point of view at the center of one's view of the world and its culture and history. The related adjective is androcentric, while the opposite of androcentrism is gynocentrism Anthropocentrism Anthropocentrism is a concept that human beings may regard themselves as the central and most significant entities in the universe, or that they assess reality through an exclusively human perspective. The term can be used interchangeably with humanocentrism, while the first concept can also be referred to as human supremacy. The views are · Afrocentrism Afrocentrism, Afrocentricity, or Africentrism is a world view which emphasizes the importance of African people, taken as a single group and often equated with "Black people", in culture, philosophy, and history. The roots of Afrocentrism lay in a reaction to the repression of Black people throughout the Western world in the 19th century Americentrism Americentrism is a pejorative term referring to the ethnocentric practice of viewing the world from an explicitly American perspective, with an implied belief, either consciously or subconsciously, in the preeminence of American culture · Black supremacy Crime of apartheid · CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR Chronocentrism It is in one sense the interpretation of events and actions of other times within the moral context of one's own time. For example, a slave owner in the 1700s who treated his slaves like free estate workers and arranged for them to be freed at his death was unusually enlightened when viewed within the proper context of his time, but someone guilty · Economic Crime of apartheid · CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism is the tendency to believe that one's ethnic or cultural group is centrally important, and that all other groups are measured in relation to one's own. The ethnocentric individual will judge other groups relative to his or her own particular ethnic group or culture, especially with concern to language, behavior, customs, and religion · Eurocentrism Eurocentrism is a term coined during the period of decolonization in the later 20th century to refer to the practice of viewing the world from a European perspective, with an implied belief, either consciously or subconsciously, in the preeminence of European culture. The term Eurocentrism implies criticism of the concerns and values at the Genetic Genetic discrimination occurs when people are treated differently by their employer or insurance company because they have a gene mutation that causes or increases the risk of an inherited disorder. People who undergo genetic testing may be at risk for genetic discrimination · Gynocentrism Gynocentrism is a belief system whereby the perceptions, needs and desires of women have primacy. In this system, the female view is the reference point or lens through which matters are analysed · Indigenism Indigenism is a kind of ethnic nationalism emphasizing the group's indigeneity to their homeland. This may be embraced by post-colonial anarchism as well as in neo-völkisch or national mysticist nationalism building on historical or pseudohistorical claims of ethnic continuity. While New World movements usually go by the name indigenism , the Jingoism Jingoism is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as "extreme patriotism in the form of aggressive foreign policy". In practice, it refers to the advocation of the use of threats or actual force against other countries in order to safeguard what they perceive as their country's national interests, and colloquially to excessive bias in · Linguistic Crime of apartheid · CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR · Sinocentrism Sinocentrism is any ethnocentric perspective that regards China to be the center of civilization which is superior to all other nations. This belief was popular among the Chinese elites up to Qing dynasty; however it is not so widely popular among Chinese in present day. In pre-modern times however, this took the form of viewing China as the only Xenocentrism Xenocentrism is a political neologism, coined as the antonym of Ethnocentrism. Xenocentrism is the preference for the products, styles, or ideas of someone else's culture rather than of one's own. The 18th Century Primitivism movement in European art and philosophy, and its concept of the Noble savage is an example of xenocentrism · White supremacy Crime of apartheid · CERD · CEDAW · CDE · ILO C111 · ILO C100 · ILO C169 · Protocol No. 12 ECHR

Forms and manifestations of ageism

This article may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (June 2008)

There are several forms of ageism which fall under two general categories: prejudicial ageism, or the negative stereotyping of people on the basis of age, and discriminatory ageism, or denying people opportunities on the basis of age.^[3]

Implicit ageism

Implicit ageism is the term used to refer to the implicit or unconscious thoughts, feelings, and behaviors one has about older or younger people. These may be a mixture of positive and negative thoughts and feelings, but gerontologist Becca Levy reports that they “tend to be mostly negative.” ^[13]

One way that implicit or explicit ageism may manifest is through the use of patronizing language with older or younger people. The term "patronizing language" specifically describes two negative methods of communication: overaccommodation, which consists of a person being excessively courteous and speaking simple and short sentences very loudly and slowly to an older or younger person, with an exaggerated tone and high pitch; and baby talk, which involves practically the same uncomplicated speech with an exaggerated pitch and tone that one uses when talking to a baby, differing in the content of the speech. These tend to downplay the serious and thoughtful contributions of older or younger persons to society, while reinforcing a negative image of them as dependent people with deficiencies in intellect, cognitive and physical performance, and other areas required for autonomous, daily functioning. People who engage in this type of speech treat older members of society as if they have regressed to an infantile state, or treat younger members of society as if they have never progressed beyond an infantile state.^[14]

Ageist stereotyping

Ageist stereotyping is a tool of cognition which involves categorizing into groups and attributing characteristics to these groups. Stereotypes are necessary for processing huge volumes of information which would otherwise overload a person, and they are often based on a "grain of truth" (for example, the association between aging and ill health). However, they cause harm when the content of the stereotype is incorrect with respect to most of the group or where a stereotype is so strongly held that it overrides evidence which shows that an individual does not conform to it. Stereotypes are used to interpret the world around us. For example, age-based stereotypes prime one to draw very different conclusions when one sees an older and a younger adult with, say, back pain or a limp. One might well assume that the younger person’s condition is temporary and treatable, following an accident, while the older person’s condition is chronic and less susceptible to intervention. On average, this might be true, but plenty of older people have accidents and recover quickly. This assumption may have no consequence if one makes it in the blink of an eye as one is passing someone in the street, but if it is held by a health professional offering treatment or managers thinking about occupational health, it could inappropriately influence their actions and lead to age-related discrimination. Another example is when people are rude to children because of their high pitched voice, even if they are kind and courteous. This occurs mostly online, since the ageists are anonymous.

Ageist prejudice

Ageist prejudice is a type of emotion which is often linked to the cognitive process of stereotyping. It can involve the expression of derogatory attitudes, which may then lead to the use of discriminatory behavior. Where older contestants were rejected in the belief that they were poor performers, this could well be the result of stereotyping. But older people were also voted for at the stage in the game where it made sense to target the best performers. This can only be explained by a subconscious emotional reaction to older people; in this case, the prejudice took the form of distaste and a desire to exclude oneself from the company of older people.

Benevolent prejudice

Stereotyping and prejudice against different groups in society does not take the same form. Age-based prejudice and stereotyping usually involves older people being pitied, marginalized, or patronized. This is described as "benevolent prejudice" because the tendency to pity is linked to seeing older people as "friendly" but "incompetent." This is similar to the prejudice most often directed against women and disabled people. Age Concern’s survey revealed strong evidence of "benevolent prejudice." 48% said that over-70s are viewed as friendly (compared to 27% who said the same about under-30s). Meanwhile, only 26% believe over-70s are viewed as capable (with 41% saying the same about under-30s).^[15]

Hostile prejudice

"Hostile prejudice" based on hatred, fear, or threat (which often characterizes attitudes linked to race, religion, and sexual orientation) is less common with respect to the elderly, though is very common with respect to youth. An example of Hostile prejudice on the youth is when someone presumes that the youth committed a crime without any evidence. But there are examples, including excessive rhetoric regarding intergenerational competition, and violence against vulnerable older people, which can be motivated by subconscious hostility or fear. Equality campaigners are often wary of drawing comparisons between different forms of inequality. But it is unquestionably true that abuse and neglect experienced by vulnerable older people (which is closely linked to hostile prejudice) kills more people each year than the shocking but relatively isolated cases of public violence motivated by race, religion, or sexual orientation.[citation needed]

The impact of "benevolent" and "hostile" prejudice can be equally severe but tends to be different. The warmth felt towards older people means there is often public acceptance that they are deserving of preferential treatment—for example, concessionary travel. But the perception of incompetence means older people can be seen as "not up to the job" or "a menace on the roads," when there is no evidence to support this. Benevolent prejudice also leads to assumptions that it is "natural" for older people to have lower expectations, reduced choice and control, and less account taken of their views.

Discrimination

Age discrimination refers to the actions taken to deny or limit opportunities to people on the basis of age. These are usually actions taken as a result of one’s ageist beliefs and attitudes. Age discrimination occurs on both a personal and institutional level.^[3]

On a personal level, an older person may be told that he or she is too old to engage in certain physical activities, like an informal game of basketball between friends and family, while a younger person may be told that he or she is too young to engage in certain social activities, like going to an unsupervised party.

On an institutional level, there are policies and regulations in place that limit opportunities to people of certain ages and deny them to all others. The law, for instance, requires that all young persons must be at least 16 years old in order to obtain a driver’s license in the United States. There are also government regulations that determine when a worker may retire. Presently, in the US, a worker must be 66 years and 2 months old before becoming eligible for normal retirement.^[16]

A 2006/2007 survey done by the Children's Rights Alliance for England and the National Children's Bureau asked 4,060 children and young people whether they have ever been treated unfairly based on various criteria (race, age, sex, sexual orientation, etc). A total of 43% of British youth surveyed reported experiencing discrimination based on their age, far eclipsing other categories of discrimination like sex (27%), race (11%), or sexual orientation (6%).^[17]

Ageism has significant effects in two particular sectors: employment and health care.

Employment

The concept of ageism was originally developed to refer to prejudice and discrimination against older people. Over time, this association between discrimination and old age has been expanded by evidence that suggests prejudice and discrimination in employment can occur to a worker of any age.^[15]

Like racial and gender discrimination, age discrimination, at least when it affects younger workers, can result in unequal pay for equal work. Unlike racial and gender discrimination, however, age discrimination in wages is often enshrined in law. For example, in both the United States^[18] and the United Kingdom^[19] minimum wage laws allow for employers to pay lower wages to young workers. Many state and local minimum wage laws mirror such an age-based, tiered minimum wage. Outside of the law, older workers, on average, make more than younger workers do. Firms may be afraid to offer older workers lower wages than they offer to younger workers.

Therefore, younger workers may face more statistical discrimination from employers than older workers. Statistical discrimination refers to limiting the employment opportunities of an individual based on stereotypes of a group to which the person belongs. Limited employment opportunities could come in the form of lower pay for equal work or jobs with little social mobility. Younger female workers may be more statistically discriminated against than older female workers, for example, because it is socially expected that, as young women of childbearing years, they will need to leave the work force periodically to have children.^[20]

Labor regulations also limit the age at which people are allowed to work and how many hours and under what conditions they may work. In the United States, a person must generally be at least 14 years old to seek a job, and workers face additional restrictions on their work activities until they reach age 16.^[21] Many companies refuse to hire workers younger than 18.

Young workers over 18 may also have a hard time finding a white-collar job because the maximum age for some professional occupations is set as low as 30 by employers. After these workers finish obtaining the necessary professional degrees, they may have only a few years, at most, to get into a position without being too old. The upward mobility in these same jobs starts to diminish once the workers reach the age of 40. A worker who gets a job at age 30 may only work about ten years before his chances of promotion begin to dwindle.^[15]

While older workers benefit more often from higher wages than do younger workers, they face barriers in promotions and hiring. Employers may also encourage early retirement or layoffs disproportionately more for older or more experienced workers.

Age discrimination in hiring has been shown to exist in the United States. Joanna Lahey, economics professor at Texas A&M University, found that firms are more than 40% more likely to interview a younger job applicant than an older job applicant.^[22]

In a survey for the University of Kent, England, 29% of respondents stated that they had suffered from age discrimination. This is a higher proportion than for gender or racial discrimination. Dominic Abrams, social psychology professor at the university, concluded that ageism is the most pervasive form of prejudice experienced in the UK population.^[23]

According to Dr. Robert M. McCann, an associate professor of management communication at the University of Southern California’s Marshall School of Business, denigrating older workers, even if only subtly, can have an outsized negative impact on employee productivity and corporate profits. For American corporations, age discrimination can lead to significant expenses. In Fiscal Year 2006, the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission received nearly 17,000 charges of age discrimination, resolving more than 14,000 and recovering $51.5 million in monetary benefits. Costs from lawsuit settlements and judgments can run into the millions, most notably with the $250 million paid by the California Public Employees' Retirement System (CalPERS) under a settlement agreement in 2003.^[24]^[25]

Healthcare

There is considerable evidence of discrimination against the elderly in health care. This is particularly true for aspects of the physician-patient interaction, such as screening procedures, information exchanges, and treatment decisions. In the patient-physician interaction, physicians and other health care providers may hold attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors that are associated with ageism against older patients. Studies have found that physicians often do not seem to show any care or concern toward treating the medical problems of older people. Then, when actually interacting with these older patients on the job, the doctors sometimes view them with disgust and describe them in negative ways, such as "depressing" or "crazy."^[14] For screening procedures, elderly people are less likely than younger people to be screened for cancers and, due to the lack of this preventative measure, less likely to be diagnosed at early stages of their conditions.^[26]

After being diagnosed with a disease that may be potentially curable, older people are further discriminated against. Though there may be surgeries or operations with high survival rates that might cure their condition, older patients are less likely than younger patients to receive all the necessary treatments. It has been posited that this is because doctors fear their older patients are not physically strong enough to tolerate the curative treatments and are more likely to have complications during surgery that may end in death. However, other studies have been done with patients with heart disease, and, in these cases, the older patients were still less likely to receive further tests or treatments, independent of the severity of their health problems. Thus, the approach to the treatment of older people is concentrated on managing the disease rather than preventing or curing it. This is based on the stereotype that it is the natural process of aging for the quality of health to decrease, and, therefore, there is no point in attempting to prevent the inevitable decline of old age.^[14]^[26]

Such differential medical treatment of elderly people can have significant effects on their health outcomes.

Effects of ageism

Ageism has significant effects on the elderly. The stereotypes and infantilization of older people by patronizing language affects older people’s self-esteem and behaviors. After repeatedly hearing a stereotype that older people are useless, older people may begin to feel like dependent, non-contributing members of society. They may start to perceive themselves in terms of the looking-glass self--that is, in the same ways that others in society see them. Studies have also specifically shown that when older people hear these stereotypes about their supposed incompetence and uselessness, they perform worse on measures of competence and memory. These stereotypes then become self-fulfilling prophecies. Older people may also engage in self-stereotypes, or taking their culture’s age stereotypes to which they have been exposed over the life course and directing them inward toward themselves. Then this behavior reinforces the present stereotypes and treatment of the elderly.^[13]^[14]

Many overcome these stereotypes and live the way they want, but it can be difficult to avoid deeply ingrained prejudice, especially if one has seen others express ageist views before growing older.

This is not to say, however, that it has no effect on the young. It too can have the same effects as ageism towards the elderly.

Measuring ageism

It is very difficult to measure ageism. Very few studies have been conducted on the topic, and those that have tend to leave out some forms of ageism, such as implicit ageism and self-stereotyped ageism. These two forms are particularly hard to conceptualize. Of the studies that have attempted to measure the concept of ageism, many have been met with significant scrutiny because there are several factors, such as the social desirability bias, that may cloud the data.^[13]

Government responses to ageism

In the US, each state may have its own laws regarding age discrimination. In California, the Fair Employment and Housing Act permits discrimination against persons under the age of 40. The FEHA is the principal California statute prohibiting employment discrimination, covering employers, labor organizations, employment agencies, apprenticeship programs and/or any person or entity who aids, abets, incites, compels, or coerces the doing of a discriminatory act. In addition to age, it prohibits employment discrimination based on race or color; religion; national origin or ancestry, physical disability; mental disability or medical condition; marital status; sex or sexual orientation; and pregnancy, childbirth, or related medical conditions.^[27]

The federal government governs age discrimination under the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA). The ADEA prohibits employment discrimination based on age with respect to employees 40 years of age or older as well.^[28] The ADEA also addresses the difficulty older workers face in obtaining new employment after being displaced from their jobs, arbitrary age limits.^[29] The ADEA applies even if some of the minimum 20 employees are overseas and working for a US corporation.^[30]

The United States federal government has responded to issues of ageism in governance through several measures in the past. They include the creation of the 1970s-era National Commission on Resources for Youth, which was created in the late 1960s as to promote youth participation throughout communities. Recently the federal government implemented the Tom Osborne Federal Youth Coordination Act, aiming to curb redundancy among federal service providers to youth.

Other countries that have laws addressing ageism include Australia, Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom.

Laws on ageism and hate crimes

Some countries have enacted anti-discriminatory laws against ageism, usually associating them with other hate crime motivations like racism, sexual orientation or religious intolerance.

In the United States, thirteen states define age as a specific motivation for hate crimes - California, District of Columbia, Florida, Iowa, Hawaii, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Mexico, New York and Vermont.^[31]^[32]

The European citizenship provides the right to protection from discrimination on the grounds of age. According to Article 21-1 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union s:Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union#CHAPTER III. EQUALITY, “any discrimination based on any ground such as (…) age, shall be prohibited”^[33].

In the Francophone world, discrimination based on age is often classified as a hate crime and/or legally deemed an aggravating circumstance.

In France, Articles 225-1 thru 225-4 of the Penal Code detail the penalization of ageism, when it comes to an age discrimination related to the consumption of a good or service, to the exercise of an economic activity, to the labor market or an internship, except in the cases foreseen in Article 225-3.^[34]^[35]

In Canada, Article 718.2, clause (a)(i), of the Criminal Code defines as aggravating circumstances, among other situations, “evidence that the offence was motivated by ....age”^[36].

In Belgium, the Law of Feb. 25, 2003 “tending to fight discrimination” punishes ageism when “a difference of treatment that lacks objective and reasonable justification is directly based on …. age”. Discrimination is forbidden when it refers to providing or offering a good or service, to conditions linked to work or employment, to the appointment or promotion of an employee, and yet to the access or participation in “an economic, social, cultural or political activity accessible to the public” (Article 2nd, § 4). Incitement to discrimination, to hatred or to violence against a person or a group on the grounds of (…) age (Article 6) is punished with imprisonment and/or a fine.^[37]

Advocacy campaigns

Many current and historical intergenerational and youth programs have been created to address the issue of ageism. Among the advocacy organizations created in the United Kingdom to challenge age discrimination are Age UK and the British Youth Council.

In the United States there have been several historic and current efforts to challenge ageism. The earliest example may be the Newsboys Strike of 1899, which fought ageist employment practices targeted against youth by large newspaper syndicates in the Northeast. During the Franklin D. Roosevelt Administration, First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt was active in the national youth movement, including the formation of the National Youth Administration and the defense of the American Youth Congress. She made several statements on behalf of youth and against ageism. In one report entitled, "Facing the Problems of Youth," Roosevelt said of youth,

"We cannot simply expect them to say, 'Our older people have had experience and they have proved to themselves certain things, therefore they are right.' That isn't the way the best kind of young people think. They want to experience for themselves. I find they are perfectly willing to talk to older people, but they don't want to talk to older people who are shocked by their ideas, nor do they want to talk to older people who are not realistic."^[38]

Students for a Democratic Society formed in 1960 to promote democratic opportunities for all people regardless of age, and the Gray Panthers was formed in the early 1970s with a goal of eliminating ageism in all forms.^[39] Three O'Clock Lobby formed in 1976 to promote youth participation throughout traditionally ageist government structures in Michigan, while Youth Liberation of Ann Arbor started in 1970 to promote youth and fight ageism.

More recent U.S. programs include Americans for a Society Free from Age Restrictions, which formed in 1996 to advance the civil and human rights of young people through eliminating ageist laws targeted against young people, and to help youth counter ageism in America.^[40] The National Youth Rights Association started in 1998 to promote awareness of the legal and human rights of young people in the United States,^[41] and the Freechild Project was formed in 2001 to identify, unify and promote diverse opportunities for youth engagement in social change by fighting ageism.

Related campaigns

In 2002 the Writers Guild of America, West has waged a legal battle within the entertainment industry to eliminate age discrimination commonly faced by elder scriptwriters.^{[citation needed]}
Director Paul Weitz reported he wrote the 2004 film, In Good Company to reveal how ageism affects youth and adults.^[42]
In 2002 The Freechild Project created an information and training initiative to provide resources to youth organizations and schools focused on youth rights.^[43]
In 2006 Lydia Giménez-LLort,Ph.D. an assistant professor of Psychiatry and researcher at the Autonomous University of Barcelona coined the term 'Snow White Syndrome' at the 'Congrés de la Gent Gran de Cerdanyola del Vallès' (Congress of the Elderly of Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain) as a metaphor to define ageism in a easier and more friendly way while developing a constructive spirit against it. The metaphor is based on both the auto-ageism and adultocracy exhibited by the queen of the Snow White fairy tale as well as the social ageism symbolized by the mirror ^[44]
Since 2008 'The Intergenerational Study' by Lydia Giménez-LLort and Paula Ramírez-Boix from the Autonomous University of Barcelona is aimed to find the basis of the link between grandparents and grandsons (positive family relationships) that are able to minimize the ageism towards the elderly. Students of several Spanish universities have enroled to this study which soon will be also performed in USA, Nigeria, Barbados, Argentina and Mexico. The preliminar results reveal that 'The Intergenerational study questionnaire' induces young people to do a reflexive and autocritic analysis of their intergenerational relationships in contrast to those shown towards other unrelated old people which results very positive to challenge ageism. A cortometrage about 'The International Study' has been directed and produced by Tomás Sunyer from Los Angeles City College ^[45]
Votes at 16 intends to lower the voting age to 16, reducing ageism and giving 16 year olds equal pay on the National Minimum Wage. The group claims that 16 year olds get less money than older people for the same work, angering many 16 year olds. They additionally postulate that 16 year olds will have their voice listened to by older people more often.

Accusations of ageism

In a recent interview, actor Pierce Brosnan cited ageism as one of the contributing factors as to why he was not asked to continue his role as James Bond in the Bond film Casino Royale, released in 2006.^[46]

Also, successful singer and actress, Madonna spoke out in her 50s about ageism and her fight to defy the norms of society.^[47]

Had John McCain succeeded in his 2008 campaign for President, he would have been the oldest President in American history. Discussions about his age dogged McCain during his failed run, and whether or not the criticism of McCain qualified as unfair 'ageist' allegations or legitimate points of view was hotly debated.^[48]^[49]^[50]^[51]^[52]^[53]^[54]^[55] McCain himself frequently made fun of the criticisms, in one instance pretending to fall asleep when asked about his age.^[55]

A 2007 Pew Research Center study found that a majority of American voters would be less likely to vote for a President past a given age, with only 45% saying that age would not matter.

References

^ Nelson, T. (Ed.) (2002). Ageism: Stereotyping and Prejudice against Older People. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-64057-2.
^ Shepard, Jon; Robert W. Greene (2003u). Sociology and You. Ohio: Glencoe McGraw-Hill. pp. A-22. ISBN 0078285763. http://www.glencoe.com/catalog/index.php/program?c=1675&s=21309&p=4213&parent=4526.
^ ^a ^b ^c Quadagno, J. (2008). The field of social gerontology. In E. Barrosse (Ed.), Aging & the life course: An introduction to social gerontology (pp. 2-23). New York: McGraw-Hill.
^ Kramarae, C. and Spender, D. (2000) Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women: Global Women's Issues and Knowledge. Routledge. p. 29.
^ Wilkinson J and Ferraro K, Thirty Years of Ageism Research. In Nelson T (ed). Ageism: Stereotyping and Prejudice Against Older Persons. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2002
^ "Young and Oppressed" - youthrights.org
^ Lauter And Howe (1971) Conspiracy of the Young. Meridian Press.
^ De Martelaer, K., De Knop, P., Theeboom, M., and Van Heddegem, L. (2000) "The UN Convention as a Basis for Elaborating Rights of Children In Sport," Journal of Leisurability. 27(2), pp. 3-10.
^ (n.d.) Youth Liberation Z magazine.
^ Fletcher, A. (2006) Washington Youth Voice Handbook. CommonAction.
^ "Stop Discrimination"'s Glossary (European Union)
^ Branch, L., Harris, D. & Palmore, E.B. (2005) Encyclopedia of Ageism. Haworth Press. ISBN 0-7890-1890-X
^ ^a ^b ^c Levy, B. R. (2001). Eradication of ageism requires addressing the enemy within. The Gerontologist, 41(5), 578-579.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Nelson, T. D. (2005). Ageism: Prejudice against our feared future self. Journal of Social Issues, 61(2), 207-221.
^ ^a ^b ^c Loretto, W., Duncan, C., & White, P.J. (2000). Ageism and employment: Controversies, ambiguities, and younger people’s perceptions. Ageing & Society, 20(3), 279-302.
^ Quadagno, J. (2008). The economics of aging. In E. Barrosse (Ed.), Aging & the life course: An introduction to social gerontology (pp. 350-374). New York: McGraw-Hill.
^ Willow, C., Franklin, A. and Shaw, C. (2007). Meeting the obligations of the Convention on the Rights of the Child in England. Children and young people's messages to Government. DCSF.
^ Questions and Answers About the Minimum Wage, US Department of Labor
^ Age Positive, Department for Work and Pensions in Sheffield and London
^ Phelps, E. S. (1972). "The statistical theory of racism and sexism". American Economic Review 62: 659–661.
^ Youth & Labor - Age Requirements, US Department of Labor
^ Lahey, J. (2005) Do Older Workers Face Discrimination? Boston College.
^ (2006) How Ageist is Britain? London: Age Concern.
^ When Words Get Old: Ageist Language Newswise, Retrieved on September 9, 2008.
^ Harris, D. (2003 July-August) Simple justice. The story behind a record-setting age discrimination settlement and what it could mean in your workplace. AARP The Magazine. Retrieved on October 25, 2008.
^ ^a ^b Robb, C., Hongbin, C., & Haley, W. E. (2002). Ageism in mental health and health care: A critical review. Journal of Clinical Geropsychology, 8(1), 1-12. [1]
^ California Fair Employment and Housing Act FindLaw.
^ Federal Protections for Older Workers 2008 KMB Legal
^ Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 FindLaw website.
^ Morelli v. Cedel (2nd Cir. 1998) 141 F3d 39, 45 FindLaw website.
^ Anti-Defamation League State Hate Crime Statutory Provisions (2005)PDF (23.8 KB) (See page 1, section "Other", note 2) Retrieved on May-21-2009
^ Everyday Fears - A Survey of Violent Hate Crimes in Europe and North AmericaPDF (1.96 MB) McClintock, Michael (See pages 84 and 122, Appendix 10, "Others", note 2) Retrieved on May-21-2009
^ Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (official text)PDF (80.6 KB)
^ (English) French Penal Code (Legifrance)
^ (French) Legifrance's Code pénal – original text
^ Canadian Criminal Code
^ (French) Belgium Law of Feb. 25 2003 against discriminationPDF (76.5 KB)
^ Roosevelt, A.E. (1935) "Facing the Problems of Youth," National Parent-Teacher Magazine 29(30). Retrieved 7/30/07.
^ Kuhn, M., Long, C. and Quinn, L. (1991) No Stone Unturned: the Life and Times of Maggie Kuhn. Ballentine Books.
^ ASFAR (2006). [2] Americans for a Society Free from Age Restrictions Articles of Incorporation.
^ National Youth Rights Association (2001).[3] National Youth Rights Association Articles of Incorporation (Partial)
^ Hellerman, A. (2005) Working Solo in Good Company Writers Guild of America, East website.
^ (n.d.) Survey of North American Youth Rights The Freechild Project website.
^ [4] (Spanish) Envellir bé · Successful Ageing · Saber Envejecer website - Know-how.
^ [5] (Spanish) Envellir bé : Successful Ageing · Saber envejecer website - Research.
^ Cox, J. (2006) Brosnan Bares All For Playboy
^ "Madonna not giving in to ageism - Cafe Fair"
^ McCain and age: An issue, not ageism. By Kirsten Powers.
^ McCain's Unseen Adversary: Ageism | Newsweek Voices - Michael Hirsh | Newsweek.com
^ MinnPost - Considering McCain's age: ageism or a fair question?
^ What's the Difference Between Ageism and Other Forms of Bias? Depends. - Political Punch
^ Ageism and John McCain | The Moderate Voice
^ Sherman Yellen: Ageism and John McCain: A Personal View
^ . http://blog.washingtonpost.com/thefix/2008/05/mccains_age_and_the_power_of_a.html.
^ ^a ^b "How Healthy Is John McCain?". Time. May 14, 2008. http://www.time.com/time/politics/article/0,8599,1779596,00.html. Retrieved April 23, 2010.

External links

2005 issue of the Journal of Social Issues Thematic journal issue devoted to empirical and theoretical research on ageism.
Ageing at work EU-OSHA
Ageism In America Detailed report on ageism from the International Longevity Center.
Ageism: Stereotyping and Prejudice Against Older Persons Edited scholarly volume of the latest research and theory on Ageism.
Article on Older Drivers.
An in-depth look at ageism by Linda M. Woolfe, Ph.D., of Webster University
Everyone deserves to be given a chance An essay against ageism towards teenagers, written by a Canadian adolescent.
Ageism - Discrimination Against Age A Knol examining ageism and social attitudes against different age groups.
Age discrimination laws by the BBC
USA Today article examining old and young CEOs the ages of John McCain and Barack Obama
Article on singer Madonna and her views on ageism

related terms:	Age Discrimination	Ageism	Prejudice	Implicit Ageism
	Ageist Stereotyping	Youth	People	Chronocentrism
	Adolescence	Discriminatory Practices	Age Based Prejudice	Adults

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