A parent (from Latin Latin or sometimes Roman is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Although often considered a dead language, in view of the fact that it has no native, fluent speakers, Latin continues to be taught in schools and has been, and currently is, used in the process of new word production in modern languages from many: parēns = parent) is a caretaker of the offspring in their own species. In humans, a parent is the mother A mother is a woman who has, conceived, given birth to, or raised a child in the role of a parent. Because of the complexity and differences of a mothers' social, cultural, and religious definitions and roles, it is challenging to define a mother to suit a universally accepted definition. The masculine equivalent is a father or the father A father is defined as a male parent of any type of offspring. The adjective "paternal" refers to father, parallel to "maternal" for mother figure of a child (NOTE: "child" refers to offspring, not necessarily age). Children can have one or more parents, but they must have two biological parents. Biological parents consist of the male who sired the child and the female who gave birth Birth is the act or process of bearing or bringing forth offspring. The offspring is brought forth from the mother. Different forms of birth are oviparity, vivipary and ovovivipary to the child. In all human societies, the biological mother and father are both responsible for raising their young. However, some parents may not be biologically related to their children. An adoptive Adoption is a process whereby a person assumes the parenting for another who is not kin and, in so doing, permanently transfers all rights and responsibilities from the original parent or parents. Unlike guardianship or other systems designed for the care of the young, adoption is intended to effect a permanent change in status and as such parent is one who nurtures and raises the offspring In biology, offspring is the product of reproduction, a new organism produced by one or more parents of the biological parents but is not actually biologically related to the child. Children without adoptive parents can be raised by their grandparents or other family members.
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Mother
Main article: Mother A mother is a woman who has, conceived, given birth to, or raised a child in the role of a parent. Because of the complexity and differences of a mothers' social, cultural, and religious definitions and roles, it is challenging to define a mother to suit a universally accepted definition. The masculine equivalent is a fatherFather
Main article: Father A father is defined as a male parent of any type of offspring. The adjective "paternal" refers to father, parallel to "maternal" for motherGrandmother
Main article: Grandmother Grandparents are the father or mother of a person's own father and/or mother. Everyone who is not a chimera has a maximum of four genetic grandparents, eight genetic great-grandparents, sixteen genetic great-great-grandparents, etc. Sometimes these numbers are lower and in the case of having only two or three grandparents sibling or half-siblingGrandfather
Main article: Grandfather Grandparents are the father or mother of a person's own father and/or mother. Everyone who is not a chimera has a maximum of four genetic grandparents, eight genetic great-grandparents, sixteen genetic great-great-grandparents, etc. Sometimes these numbers are lower and in the case of having only two or three grandparents sibling or half-siblingLike mothers, fathers may be categorised according to their biological, social The sociology of fatherhood is a subbranch of sociology which studies gender role in society, with particular reference to the parental role of the father or legal relationship An interpersonal relationship is an association between two or more people that may range from fleeting to enduring. This association may be based on limerence, love and liking, regular business interactions, or some other type of social commitment. Interpersonal relationships take place in a great variety of contexts, such as family, friends, with the child. Historically, the biological relationship paternity has been determinative of fatherhood. However, proof The law of evidence governs the use of testimony and exhibits (e.g., physical objects) or other documentary material which is admissible (i.e., allowed to be considered by the trier of fact, such as jury) in a judicial or administrative proceeding (e.g., a court of law) of paternity has been intrinsically problematic and so social rules often determined who would be regarded as a father e.g. the husband of the mother.
Biological parents and parental testing
The term biological parent refers to a parent who is the biological Reproduction is the biological process by which new "offspring" individual organisms are produced from their "parents". Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism exists as the result of reproduction. The known methods of reproduction are broadly grouped into two main types: sexual and mother or father of an individual. While an individual's parents are often also their biological parents, it is seldom used unless there is an explicit difference between who acted as a parent for that individual and the person from whom they inherit half of their genes A gene is a unit of heredity in a living organism. It is normally a stretch of DNA that codes for a type of protein or for an RNA chain that has a function in the organism. All living things depend on genes, as they specify all proteins and functional RNA chains. Genes hold the information to build and maintain an organism's cells and pass genetic. For example, a person whose father has remarried may call his new wife their stepmother A stepfamily, also known as a blended family or reconstituted family, is a family in which one or both members of the couple have children from a previous relationship. The member of the couple to whom the child is not biologically related is the stepparent, specifically the stepmother or stepfather and continue to refer to their mother normally, though someone who has had little or no contact with their biological mother may address their foster parent Foster care is the colloquial term used for a system in which a minor who has been made a ward is placed in the private home of a state certified caregiver referred to as a "foster parent". The state via the family court and child welfare agency stand in loco parentis to the minor making all legal decisions, while the foster parent is as their mother, and their biological mother as such, or perhaps by her first name.
Parental testing
Main article: Parental testing Parental testing is the use of genetic fingerprinting to determine whether two individuals have a biological parent-child relationship. A paternity test establishes genetic proof whether a man is the biological father of an individual, and a maternity test establishes whether a woman is the biological mother of an individual. Though geneticA paternity test is conducted to prove paternity, that is, whether a man is the biological father of another individual. This may be relevant in view of rights The fathers' rights movement is a movement whose members are primarily interested in issues related to family law, including child custody and child support that affect fathers and their children. Many of its members are fathers who desire to share the parenting of their children equally with their children's mother - either after divorce or as and duties of the father. Similarly, a maternity test can be carried out. This is less common, because at least during childbirth Childbirth is the culmination of a human pregnancy or gestation period with the birth of one or more newborn infants from a woman's uterus. The process of normal human childbirth is categorized in three stages of labour: the shortening and dilation of the cervix, descent and birth of the infant, and birth of the placenta. In many cases, with and pregnancy Pregnancy is the carrying of one or more offspring, known as a fetus or embryo, inside the womb of a female. In a pregnancy, there can be multiple gestations, as in the case of twins or triplets. Human pregnancy is the most studied of all mammalian pregnancies. Childbirth usually occurs about 38 weeks after conception; i.e., approximately 40 weeks, except in the case of a pregnancy involving embryo transfer Embryo transfer refers to a step in the process of in vitro fertilization whereby one or several embryos are placed into the uterus of the female with the intent to establish a pregnancy or egg donation Egg donation is the process by which a woman provides one or several eggs (ova, oocytes) for purposes of assisted reproduction or biomedical research. For assisted reproduction purposes, egg donation involves the process of in vitro fertilization as the eggs are fertilized in the laboratory. After the eggs have been obtained, the role of the egg, it is obvious who the mother A mother is a woman who has, conceived, given birth to, or raised a child in the role of a parent. Because of the complexity and differences of a mothers' social, cultural, and religious definitions and roles, it is challenging to define a mother to suit a universally accepted definition. The masculine equivalent is a father is. However, it is used in a number of events such as legal battles where a person's maternity is challenged, where the mother is uncertain because she has not seen her child for an extended period of time, or where deceased persons need to be identified.
Although not constituting completely reliable evidence, several congenital traits In Mendelian inheritance, several dominant genes from either parent usually present with the dominant form of the trait. Only those that received the recessive gene from both parents present with the recessive phenotype such as attached earlobes The earlobe is composed of tough areolar and adipose connective tissues, lacking the firmness and elasticity of the rest of the pinna. Since the earlobe does not contain cartilage the earlobe has a large blood supply and may help to warm the ears and maintain balance but generally earlobes are not considered to have any major biological function, the widow's peak A widow's peak is a descending V-shaped point in the middle of the hairline (above the forehead). It is an example of a dominant inherited trait. The term comes from English folklore, where it was believed that this hair formation was a sign of a woman who would outlive her husband, or the cleft chin Categories: Congenital disorders | Genetics | Facial features , may serve as tentative indicators of (non-) parenthood as they are readily observable and inherited via autosomal-dominant genes.
A more reliable way to ascertain parenthood is via DNA analysis (known as genetic fingerprinting DNA profiling is a technique employed by forensic scientists to assist in the identification of individuals on the basis of their respective DNA profiles. DNA profiles are encrypted sets of numbers that reflect a person's DNA makeup, which can also be used as the person's identifier. DNA profiling should not be confused with full genome sequencing of individuals, although older methods have included ABO blood group typing A blood type is a classification of blood based on the presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs). These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates, glycoproteins, or glycolipids, depending on the blood group system. Some of these antigens are also present on the surface of other types of cells of, analysis of various other proteins Proteins are organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and folded into a globular form. The amino acids in a polymer are joined together by the peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acid residues. The sequence of amino acids in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded and enzymes Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process are called substrates, and the enzyme converts them into different molecules, called the products. Almost all processes in a biological cell need enzymes to occur at significant rates. Since enzymes are selective for their, or using HLA antigens An antigen is a molecule recognized by the immune system. Originally the term came from antibody generator and was a molecule that binds specifically to an antibody, but the term now also refers to any molecule or molecular fragment that can be bound by a major histocompatibility complex and presented to a T-cell receptor. "Self". The current techniques for paternity testing are using polymerase chain reaction In molecular biology, the polymerase chain reaction is a technique to amplify a single or few copies of a piece of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence. The method relies on thermal cycling, consisting of cycles of repeated heating and cooling of the reaction for DNA (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism In molecular biology, the term restriction fragment length polymorphism, or RFLP, refers to a difference between two or more samples of homologous DNA molecules arising from differing locations of restriction sites, and to a related laboratory technique by which these segments can be distinguished. In RFLP analysis the DNA sample is broken into (RFLP). For the most part however, genetic fingerprinting has all but taken over all the other forms of testing.
Parent-offspring conflict
Main article: Parent-offspring conflict Parent-offspring conflict is a term coined in 1974 by Robert Trivers. It is used to signify the evolutionary conflict arising from differences in optimal parental investment (PI) to an offspring from the standpoint of the parent and the offspring. Here, PI can be defined as any investment by the parent in an individual offspring which decreasesParent-offspring conflict describes the evolutionary conflict In evolutionary biology, an evolutionary arms race is an evolutionary struggle between competing sets of co-evolving genes that develop adaptations and counter-adaptations against each other, resembling an arms race, which are also examples of positive feedback. The co-evolving gene sets may be in different species, as in an evolutionary arms race arising from differences in optimal fitness Fitness is a central idea in evolutionary theory. It describes the capability of an individual of certain genotype to reproduce, and usually is equal to the proportion of the individual's genes in all the genes of the next generation. If differences in individual genotypes affect fitness, then the frequencies of the genotypes will change over of parents and their offspring In biology, offspring is the product of reproduction, a new organism produced by one or more parents. While parents tend to maximize the number of offspring, the offspring can increase their fitness by getting a greater share of parental investment In evolutionary biology, parental investment is any parental expenditure (time, energy etc.) that benefits one offspring at a cost to parents' ability to invest in other components of fitness (Clutton-Brock 1991: 9; Trivers 1972). Components of fitness (Beatty 1992) include the wellbeing of existing offspring, parents' future reproduction, and often by competing with their siblings Siblings are people who share at least one parent. A male sibling is called a brother; and a female sibling is called a sister. In most societies throughout the world, siblings usually grow up together and spend a good deal of their childhood socializing with one another. This genetic and physical closeness may be marked by the development of. The theory was proposed by Robert Trivers Robert L. Trivers is an American evolutionary biologist and sociobiologist, most noted for proposing the theories of reciprocal altruism (1971), parental investment (1972), and parent-offspring conflict (1974). Other areas in which he has made influential contributions include an adaptive view of self-deception (first described in 1976) and in 1974 and extends the more general selfish gene theory The gene-centered view of evolution, gene selection theory or selfish gene theory holds that natural selection acts through differential survival of competing genes, increasing the frequency of those alleles whose phenotypic effects successfully promote their own propagation. According to this theory, adaptations are the phenotypic effects through and has been used to explain many observed biological phenomena.[1] For example, in some bird Birds are winged, bipedal, endothermic (warm-blooded), egg-laying, vertebrate animals. There are around 10,000 living species, making them the most varied of tetrapod vertebrates. They inhabit ecosystems across the globe, from the Arctic to the Antarctic. Extant birds range in size from the 5 cm (2 in) Bee Hummingbird to the 2.75 m (9 ft) Ostrich species, although parents often lay two eggs and attempt to raise two or more young, the strongest fledgling takes a greater share of the food brought by parents and will often kill the weaker sibling, an act known as siblicide Siblicide is the death of an individual caused by its close relatives. It may occur directly between siblings or be mediated by the parents. The evolutionary drivers may be either indirect benefits for the genetic viability of a population or direct benefits for the perpetrators.
David Haig has argued that human fetal A fetus is a developing mammal or other viviparous vertebrate after the embryonic stage and before birth genes would be selected to draw more resources from the mother than it would be optimal for the mother to give, an hypothesis that has received empirical support. The placenta The placenta is an organ that connects the developing fetus to the uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and gas exchange via the mother's blood supply. Placentas are a defining characteristic of eutherian or "placental" mammals, but are also found in some snakes and lizards with varying levels of development up to, for example, secretes allocrine hormones A hormone is a chemical released by a cell in one part of the body, that sends out messages that affect cells in other parts of the organism. Only a small amount of hormone is required to alter cell metabolism. It is essentially a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one cell to another. All multicellular organisms produce hormones; that decrease the sensitivity of the mother to insulin Insulin is a hormone that is central to regulate energy and glucose metabolism in the body. Insulin causes cells in the liver, muscle, and fat tissue to take up glucose from the blood, storing it as glycogen in the liver and muscle and thus make a larger supply of blood sugar available to the fetus. The mother responds by increasing the level of insulin in her bloodstream, the placenta has insulin receptors that stimulate the production of insulin-degrading enzymes Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process are called substrates, and the enzyme converts them into different molecules, called the products. Almost all processes in a biological cell need enzymes to occur at significant rates. Since enzymes are selective for their which counteract this effect.[2]
Optimal gender mix
While a child has a biological father and a mother, not every family is a traditional nuclear family. There are many variants, such as adoption, shared parenting, step families, and LGBT parenting, over which there has been controversy.
The social science literature rejects the notion that there is an optimal gender mix of parents or that children and adolescents with same-sex parents suffer any developmental disadvantages compared with those with two opposite-sex parents.[3][4] The professionals and the major associations now agree there is a well established and accepted consensus in the field that there is no optimal gender combination of parents.[5] The family studies literature indicates that it is family processes (such as the quality of parenting and relationships within the family) that contribute to determining children’s well-being and ‘outcomes’, rather than family structures, per se, such as the number, gender, sexuality and co-habitation status of parents.[4]
See also
| Look up parent in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
| Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Childbirth |
- Bateman's principle - the theory that females almost always invest more energy into producing offspring than males, and that therefore in most species females are a limiting resource over which the other sex will compete.
- Borderline parents
- Child abuse
- Cinderella effect
- Egg and sperm donation
- Infant
- Narcissistic parents
- Non-paternity event
- Parental investment
- Parenting
- Paternal bond
- Paternity (law)
- Reciprocal socialization
- Surrogate mother
References
- ^ Trivers, R.L. (1974). Parent-offspring conflict. American Zoologist, 14, 249-264.
- ^ Haig, D. (1993). Genetic conflicts in human pregnancy. Quarterly Review of Biology, 68, 495-532.
- ^ Michael Lamb, Ph.D.: Affidavit - United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts (2009)
- ^ a b Elizabeth Short, Damien W. Riggs, Amaryll Perlesz, Rhonda Brown, Graeme Kane: Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) Parented Families - A Literature Review prepared for The Australian Psychological Society
- ^ In The Supreme Court of Iowa No. 07–1499
External links
- National Educational Network, Inc. (NENI) - free online resources for parent education, curriculum. They also have a parent blog with information about child care, afterschool, trends in education, tutoring, college, grants, etc.
- Discovery Health's Parenting Center Tools, information, video, expert advice, simulation games... Everything you need to bring up healthy children.
- "Parents". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Parents. - A Roman Catholic view of the position of parents.
- ParentlinePlus.org.uk - National charity working for, and with parents. Offering a free 24/7 parents helpline and providing parenting advice and parental guidance, on a wide range of parenting issues.
- Gotateenager.org.uk - Social networking website for parents of teenagers by Parentline Plus. Visit for articles, online comics, Web TV Shows, E-learning Quizzes and more...
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Categories: Family | Divorce | Human development | Marriage | Motherhood | Fatherhood | Infancy
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Thu, 29 Jul 2010 16:47:55 GMT+00:00
Are Typical Kids Babble (blog) There is no justification for denying lesbian and gay prospective adoptive parents the opportunity to adopt children. So say the authors of a study ... Kids Adopted By Same-Sex Couples 'Thriving': Researcher MSN Health & Fitness
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by now Well grandmother or not I d have been thrilled to see them Time flies when you re having fun The most emotional part of my visit to my hometown was to the cemetery where my parents were buried It s hard to believe this is only the second time that I ve been there My 5th sister and I took the bus to Johor Bahru and then a taxi from the border to Singapore The
MashCeleb
Fri, 30 Jul 2010 09:49:35 GM
Katy Perry Reveals Why Her . Parents. Were Strict! (PHOTO) - KATY Perry says her . parents. were strict with her because they didn't want her to "turn out like a prostitute". Also more coverage on Katy Perry.
Q. I am very experienced in acting, singing, and dancing. Just at my local theatre that works with people on broadway. But I want to go further. I want to convince my parents to let me get an agent, auditon for shows and movies (mainly I want to try Disney), and more like that. But there are problems. Like pricing, no we're not poor, I don't know what you consider rich, but either way my parents don't want to spend the money. Another is location, I live in L.A. but I've heard of auditions in lie, chicago, which my parents would never allow. Also, school work, how would I be able to do it, Im only 14 after all. But I'd give anything to have that. It's my dream, and I've heard from many well experienced people (broadway stars and such) that i… [cont.]
Asked by kar - Mon Feb 19 23:27:33 2007 - - 3 Answers - 0 Comments
A. Two things to keep in mind: One, for your parents, it's probably less about money and more about you. They want you to have a childhood, a prom, a graduation. And you can't go back at twenty-five, when you've missed out on all of that, and do it over. Two: I can name on one hand the number of child-stars who are still actors/actresses in adulthood. They get type-cast in early roles, and never get to play anything else. Look at Daniel Radcliffe (Harry Potter). He's gone so far as to go naked for a seen in Equus, his play in London. Unfortunately, everyone goes to see him naked, not because he's a great actor. He'll always be Harry Potter. Fourteen is a great age to be... when you're fourteen. Unfortunately, to be typecast as a… [cont.]
Answered by sherrilyn1999 - Mon Feb 19 23:37:18 2007
